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  180.   <section id="the-python-tutorial">

  181. <span id="tutorial-index"></span><h1>The Python Tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#the-python-tutorial" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h1>

  182. <p>Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient

  183. high-level data structures and a simple but effective approach to

  184. object-oriented programming. Python’s elegant syntax and dynamic typing,

  185. together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting

  186. and rapid application development in many areas on most platforms.</p>

  187. <p>The Python interpreter and the extensive standard library are freely available

  188. in source or binary form for all major platforms from the Python web site,

  189. <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/">https://www.python.org/</a>, and may be freely distributed. The same site also

  190. contains distributions of and pointers to many free third party Python modules,

  191. programs and tools, and additional documentation.</p>

  192. <p>The Python interpreter is easily extended with new functions and data types

  193. implemented in C or C++ (or other languages callable from C). Python is also

  194. suitable as an extension language for customizable applications.</p>

  195. <p>This tutorial introduces the reader informally to the basic concepts and

  196. features of the Python language and system. It helps to have a Python

  197. interpreter handy for hands-on experience, but all examples are self-contained,

  198. so the tutorial can be read off-line as well.</p>

  199. <p>For a description of standard objects and modules, see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a>.

  200. <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/index.html#reference-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Language Reference</span></a> gives a more formal definition of the language.  To write

  201. extensions in C or C++, read <a class="reference internal" href="../extending/index.html#extending-index"><span class="std std-ref">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</span></a> and

  202. <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/index.html#c-api-index"><span class="std std-ref">Python/C API Reference Manual</span></a>. There are also several books covering Python in depth.</p>

  203. <p>This tutorial does not attempt to be comprehensive and cover every single

  204. feature, or even every commonly used feature. Instead, it introduces many of

  205. Python’s most noteworthy features, and will give you a good idea of the

  206. language’s flavor and style. After reading it, you will be able to read and

  207. write Python modules and programs, and you will be ready to learn more about the

  208. various Python library modules described in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a>.</p>

  209. <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#glossary"><span class="std std-ref">Glossary</span></a> is also worth going through.</p>

  210. <div class="toctree-wrapper compound">

  211. <ul>

  212. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="appetite.html">1. Whetting Your Appetite</a></li>

  213. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html">2. Using the Python Interpreter</a><ul>

  214. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html#invoking-the-interpreter">2.1. Invoking the Interpreter</a><ul>

  215. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html#argument-passing">2.1.1. Argument Passing</a></li>

  216. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html#interactive-mode">2.1.2. Interactive Mode</a></li>

  217. </ul>

  218. </li>

  219. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html#the-interpreter-and-its-environment">2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment</a><ul>

  220. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html#source-code-encoding">2.2.1. Source Code Encoding</a></li>

  221. </ul>

  222. </li>

  223. </ul>

  224. </li>

  225. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html">3. An Informal Introduction to Python</a><ul>

  226. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#using-python-as-a-calculator">3.1. Using Python as a Calculator</a><ul>

  227. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#numbers">3.1.1. Numbers</a></li>

  228. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#text">3.1.2. Text</a></li>

  229. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#lists">3.1.3. Lists</a></li>

  230. </ul>

  231. </li>

  232. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#first-steps-towards-programming">3.2. First Steps Towards Programming</a></li>

  233. </ul>

  234. </li>

  235. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html">4. More Control Flow Tools</a><ul>

  236. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#if-statements">4.1. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> Statements</a></li>

  237. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#for-statements">4.2. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> Statements</a></li>

  238. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#the-range-function">4.3. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code> Function</a></li>

  239. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#break-and-continue-statements-and-else-clauses-on-loops">4.4. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> Statements, and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> Clauses on Loops</a></li>

  240. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#pass-statements">4.5. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code> Statements</a></li>

  241. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#match-statements">4.6. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match</span></code> Statements</a></li>

  242. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#defining-functions">4.7. Defining Functions</a></li>

  243. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#more-on-defining-functions">4.8. More on Defining Functions</a><ul>

  244. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#default-argument-values">4.8.1. Default Argument Values</a></li>

  245. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#keyword-arguments">4.8.2. Keyword Arguments</a></li>

  246. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#special-parameters">4.8.3. Special parameters</a><ul>

  247. <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#positional-or-keyword-arguments">4.8.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments</a></li>

  248. <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#positional-only-parameters">4.8.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters</a></li>

  249. <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#keyword-only-arguments">4.8.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments</a></li>

  250. <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#function-examples">4.8.3.4. Function Examples</a></li>

  251. <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#recap">4.8.3.5. Recap</a></li>

  252. </ul>

  253. </li>

  254. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#arbitrary-argument-lists">4.8.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists</a></li>

  255. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#unpacking-argument-lists">4.8.5. Unpacking Argument Lists</a></li>

  256. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#lambda-expressions">4.8.6. Lambda Expressions</a></li>

  257. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#documentation-strings">4.8.7. Documentation Strings</a></li>

  258. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#function-annotations">4.8.8. Function Annotations</a></li>

  259. </ul>

  260. </li>

  261. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#intermezzo-coding-style">4.9. Intermezzo: Coding Style</a></li>

  262. </ul>

  263. </li>

  264. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html">5. Data Structures</a><ul>

  265. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#more-on-lists">5.1. More on Lists</a><ul>

  266. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#using-lists-as-stacks">5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks</a></li>

  267. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#using-lists-as-queues">5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues</a></li>

  268. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#list-comprehensions">5.1.3. List Comprehensions</a></li>

  269. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#nested-list-comprehensions">5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions</a></li>

  270. </ul>

  271. </li>

  272. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#the-del-statement">5.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement</a></li>

  273. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#tuples-and-sequences">5.3. Tuples and Sequences</a></li>

  274. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#sets">5.4. Sets</a></li>

  275. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#dictionaries">5.5. Dictionaries</a></li>

  276. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#looping-techniques">5.6. Looping Techniques</a></li>

  277. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#more-on-conditions">5.7. More on Conditions</a></li>

  278. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#comparing-sequences-and-other-types">5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types</a></li>

  279. </ul>

  280. </li>

  281. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html">6. Modules</a><ul>

  282. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#more-on-modules">6.1. More on Modules</a><ul>

  283. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#executing-modules-as-scripts">6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts</a></li>

  284. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#the-module-search-path">6.1.2. The Module Search Path</a></li>

  285. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#compiled-python-files">6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files</a></li>

  286. </ul>

  287. </li>

  288. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#standard-modules">6.2. Standard Modules</a></li>

  289. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#the-dir-function">6.3. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code> Function</a></li>

  290. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#packages">6.4. Packages</a><ul>

  291. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#importing-from-a-package">6.4.1. Importing * From a Package</a></li>

  292. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#intra-package-references">6.4.2. Intra-package References</a></li>

  293. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#packages-in-multiple-directories">6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories</a></li>

  294. </ul>

  295. </li>

  296. </ul>

  297. </li>

  298. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html">7. Input and Output</a><ul>

  299. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#fancier-output-formatting">7.1. Fancier Output Formatting</a><ul>

  300. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#formatted-string-literals">7.1.1. Formatted String Literals</a></li>

  301. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#the-string-format-method">7.1.2. The String format() Method</a></li>

  302. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#manual-string-formatting">7.1.3. Manual String Formatting</a></li>

  303. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#old-string-formatting">7.1.4. Old string formatting</a></li>

  304. </ul>

  305. </li>

  306. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#reading-and-writing-files">7.2. Reading and Writing Files</a><ul>

  307. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#methods-of-file-objects">7.2.1. Methods of File Objects</a></li>

  308. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#saving-structured-data-with-json">7.2.2. Saving structured data with <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a></li>

  309. </ul>

  310. </li>

  311. </ul>

  312. </li>

  313. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html">8. Errors and Exceptions</a><ul>

  314. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#syntax-errors">8.1. Syntax Errors</a></li>

  315. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#exceptions">8.2. Exceptions</a></li>

  316. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#handling-exceptions">8.3. Handling Exceptions</a></li>

  317. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#raising-exceptions">8.4. Raising Exceptions</a></li>

  318. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#exception-chaining">8.5. Exception Chaining</a></li>

  319. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#user-defined-exceptions">8.6. User-defined Exceptions</a></li>

  320. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#defining-clean-up-actions">8.7. Defining Clean-up Actions</a></li>

  321. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#predefined-clean-up-actions">8.8. Predefined Clean-up Actions</a></li>

  322. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#raising-and-handling-multiple-unrelated-exceptions">8.9. Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions</a></li>

  323. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#enriching-exceptions-with-notes">8.10. Enriching Exceptions with Notes</a></li>

  324. </ul>

  325. </li>

  326. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html">9. Classes</a><ul>

  327. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#a-word-about-names-and-objects">9.1. A Word About Names and Objects</a></li>

  328. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#python-scopes-and-namespaces">9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces</a><ul>

  329. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#scopes-and-namespaces-example">9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example</a></li>

  330. </ul>

  331. </li>

  332. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#a-first-look-at-classes">9.3. A First Look at Classes</a><ul>

  333. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#class-definition-syntax">9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax</a></li>

  334. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#class-objects">9.3.2. Class Objects</a></li>

  335. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#instance-objects">9.3.3. Instance Objects</a></li>

  336. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#method-objects">9.3.4. Method Objects</a></li>

  337. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#class-and-instance-variables">9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables</a></li>

  338. </ul>

  339. </li>

  340. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#random-remarks">9.4. Random Remarks</a></li>

  341. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#inheritance">9.5. Inheritance</a><ul>

  342. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#multiple-inheritance">9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance</a></li>

  343. </ul>

  344. </li>

  345. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#private-variables">9.6. Private Variables</a></li>

  346. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#odds-and-ends">9.7. Odds and Ends</a></li>

  347. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#iterators">9.8. Iterators</a></li>

  348. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#generators">9.9. Generators</a></li>

  349. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#generator-expressions">9.10. Generator Expressions</a></li>

  350. </ul>

  351. </li>

  352. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html">10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library</a><ul>

  353. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#operating-system-interface">10.1. Operating System Interface</a></li>

  354. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#file-wildcards">10.2. File Wildcards</a></li>

  355. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#command-line-arguments">10.3. Command Line Arguments</a></li>

  356. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#error-output-redirection-and-program-termination">10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination</a></li>

  357. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#string-pattern-matching">10.5. String Pattern Matching</a></li>

  358. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#mathematics">10.6. Mathematics</a></li>

  359. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#internet-access">10.7. Internet Access</a></li>

  360. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#dates-and-times">10.8. Dates and Times</a></li>

  361. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#data-compression">10.9. Data Compression</a></li>

  362. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#performance-measurement">10.10. Performance Measurement</a></li>

  363. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#quality-control">10.11. Quality Control</a></li>

  364. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#batteries-included">10.12. Batteries Included</a></li>

  365. </ul>

  366. </li>

  367. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html">11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II</a><ul>

  368. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#output-formatting">11.1. Output Formatting</a></li>

  369. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#templating">11.2. Templating</a></li>

  370. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#working-with-binary-data-record-layouts">11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts</a></li>

  371. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#multi-threading">11.4. Multi-threading</a></li>

  372. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#logging">11.5. Logging</a></li>

  373. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#weak-references">11.6. Weak References</a></li>

  374. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#tools-for-working-with-lists">11.7. Tools for Working with Lists</a></li>

  375. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#decimal-floating-point-arithmetic">11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic</a></li>

  376. </ul>

  377. </li>

  378. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="venv.html">12. Virtual Environments and Packages</a><ul>

  379. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="venv.html#introduction">12.1. Introduction</a></li>

  380. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="venv.html#creating-virtual-environments">12.2. Creating Virtual Environments</a></li>

  381. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="venv.html#managing-packages-with-pip">12.3. Managing Packages with pip</a></li>

  382. </ul>

  383. </li>

  384. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="whatnow.html">13. What Now?</a></li>

  385. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="interactive.html">14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution</a><ul>

  386. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="interactive.html#tab-completion-and-history-editing">14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing</a></li>

  387. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="interactive.html#alternatives-to-the-interactive-interpreter">14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter</a></li>

  388. </ul>

  389. </li>

  390. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="floatingpoint.html">15. Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations</a><ul>

  391. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="floatingpoint.html#representation-error">15.1. Representation Error</a></li>

  392. </ul>

  393. </li>

  394. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html">16. Appendix</a><ul>

  395. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#interactive-mode">16.1. Interactive Mode</a><ul>

  396. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#error-handling">16.1.1. Error Handling</a></li>

  397. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#executable-python-scripts">16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts</a></li>

  398. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#the-interactive-startup-file">16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File</a></li>

  399. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#the-customization-modules">16.1.4. The Customization Modules</a></li>

  400. </ul>

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