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  158. <section id="generic-operating-system-services">
  159. <span id="allos"></span><h1>Generic Operating System Services<a class="headerlink" href="#generic-operating-system-services" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h1>
  160. <p>The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to operating system
  161. features that are available on (almost) all operating systems, such as files and
  162. a clock. The interfaces are generally modeled after the Unix or C interfaces,
  163. but they are available on most other systems as well. Here’s an overview:</p>
  164. <div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
  165. <ul>
  166. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces</a><ul>
  167. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables">File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables</a></li>
  168. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#python-utf-8-mode">Python UTF-8 Mode</a></li>
  169. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#process-parameters">Process Parameters</a></li>
  170. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-object-creation">File Object Creation</a></li>
  171. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-descriptor-operations">File Descriptor Operations</a><ul>
  172. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#querying-the-size-of-a-terminal">Querying the size of a terminal</a></li>
  173. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#inheritance-of-file-descriptors">Inheritance of File Descriptors</a></li>
  174. </ul>
  175. </li>
  176. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#files-and-directories">Files and Directories</a><ul>
  177. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#linux-extended-attributes">Linux extended attributes</a></li>
  178. </ul>
  179. </li>
  180. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#process-management">Process Management</a></li>
  181. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#interface-to-the-scheduler">Interface to the scheduler</a></li>
  182. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#miscellaneous-system-information">Miscellaneous System Information</a></li>
  183. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#random-numbers">Random numbers</a></li>
  184. </ul>
  185. </li>
  186. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code> — Core tools for working with streams</a><ul>
  187. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#overview">Overview</a><ul>
  188. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#text-i-o">Text I/O</a></li>
  189. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#binary-i-o">Binary I/O</a></li>
  190. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#raw-i-o">Raw I/O</a></li>
  191. </ul>
  192. </li>
  193. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#text-encoding">Text Encoding</a><ul>
  194. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#opt-in-encodingwarning">Opt-in EncodingWarning</a></li>
  195. </ul>
  196. </li>
  197. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#high-level-module-interface">High-level Module Interface</a></li>
  198. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#class-hierarchy">Class hierarchy</a><ul>
  199. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#i-o-base-classes">I/O Base Classes</a></li>
  200. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#raw-file-i-o">Raw File I/O</a></li>
  201. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#buffered-streams">Buffered Streams</a></li>
  202. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#id1">Text I/O</a></li>
  203. </ul>
  204. </li>
  205. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#performance">Performance</a><ul>
  206. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#id2">Binary I/O</a></li>
  207. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#id3">Text I/O</a></li>
  208. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#multi-threading">Multi-threading</a></li>
  209. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#reentrancy">Reentrancy</a></li>
  210. </ul>
  211. </li>
  212. </ul>
  213. </li>
  214. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code> — Time access and conversions</a><ul>
  215. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
  216. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html#clock-id-constants">Clock ID Constants</a></li>
  217. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html#timezone-constants">Timezone Constants</a></li>
  218. </ul>
  219. </li>
  220. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code> — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands</a><ul>
  221. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#core-functionality">Core Functionality</a></li>
  222. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#quick-links-for-add-argument">Quick Links for add_argument()</a></li>
  223. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#example">Example</a><ul>
  224. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#creating-a-parser">Creating a parser</a></li>
  225. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#adding-arguments">Adding arguments</a></li>
  226. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a></li>
  227. </ul>
  228. </li>
  229. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argumentparser-objects">ArgumentParser objects</a><ul>
  230. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#prog">prog</a></li>
  231. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#usage">usage</a></li>
  232. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#description">description</a></li>
  233. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#epilog">epilog</a></li>
  234. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parents">parents</a></li>
  235. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#formatter-class">formatter_class</a></li>
  236. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#prefix-chars">prefix_chars</a></li>
  237. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#fromfile-prefix-chars">fromfile_prefix_chars</a></li>
  238. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-default">argument_default</a></li>
  239. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#allow-abbrev">allow_abbrev</a></li>
  240. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#conflict-handler">conflict_handler</a></li>
  241. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#add-help">add_help</a></li>
  242. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#exit-on-error">exit_on_error</a></li>
  243. </ul>
  244. </li>
  245. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-add-argument-method">The add_argument() method</a><ul>
  246. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#name-or-flags">name or flags</a></li>
  247. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#action">action</a></li>
  248. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#nargs">nargs</a></li>
  249. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#const">const</a></li>
  250. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#default">default</a></li>
  251. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#type">type</a></li>
  252. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#choices">choices</a></li>
  253. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#required">required</a></li>
  254. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#help">help</a></li>
  255. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#metavar">metavar</a></li>
  256. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#dest">dest</a></li>
  257. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#action-classes">Action classes</a></li>
  258. </ul>
  259. </li>
  260. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-parse-args-method">The parse_args() method</a><ul>
  261. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#option-value-syntax">Option value syntax</a></li>
  262. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#invalid-arguments">Invalid arguments</a></li>
  263. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#arguments-containing">Arguments containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code></a></li>
  264. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-abbreviations-prefix-matching">Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)</a></li>
  265. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#beyond-sys-argv">Beyond <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a></li>
  266. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-namespace-object">The Namespace object</a></li>
  267. </ul>
  268. </li>
  269. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#other-utilities">Other utilities</a><ul>
  270. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#sub-commands">Sub-commands</a></li>
  271. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#filetype-objects">FileType objects</a></li>
  272. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-groups">Argument groups</a></li>
  273. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#mutual-exclusion">Mutual exclusion</a></li>
  274. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parser-defaults">Parser defaults</a></li>
  275. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#printing-help">Printing help</a></li>
  276. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#partial-parsing">Partial parsing</a></li>
  277. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#customizing-file-parsing">Customizing file parsing</a></li>
  278. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#exiting-methods">Exiting methods</a></li>
  279. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#intermixed-parsing">Intermixed parsing</a></li>
  280. </ul>
  281. </li>
  282. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#upgrading-optparse-code">Upgrading optparse code</a></li>
  283. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
  284. </ul>
  285. </li>
  286. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="getopt.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code> — C-style parser for command line options</a></li>
  287. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code> — Logging facility for Python</a><ul>
  288. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logger-objects">Logger Objects</a></li>
  289. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging-levels">Logging Levels</a></li>
  290. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#handler-objects">Handler Objects</a></li>
  291. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#formatter-objects">Formatter Objects</a></li>
  292. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#filter-objects">Filter Objects</a></li>
  293. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logrecord-objects">LogRecord Objects</a></li>
  294. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logrecord-attributes">LogRecord attributes</a></li>
  295. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#loggeradapter-objects">LoggerAdapter Objects</a></li>
  296. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#thread-safety">Thread Safety</a></li>
  297. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-level-functions">Module-Level Functions</a></li>
  298. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-level-attributes">Module-Level Attributes</a></li>
  299. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#integration-with-the-warnings-module">Integration with the warnings module</a></li>
  300. </ul>
  301. </li>
  302. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code> — Logging configuration</a><ul>
  303. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-functions">Configuration functions</a></li>
  304. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#security-considerations">Security considerations</a></li>
  305. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-dictionary-schema">Configuration dictionary schema</a><ul>
  306. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#dictionary-schema-details">Dictionary Schema Details</a></li>
  307. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#incremental-configuration">Incremental Configuration</a></li>
  308. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#object-connections">Object connections</a></li>
  309. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#user-defined-objects">User-defined objects</a></li>
  310. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#handler-configuration-order">Handler configuration order</a></li>
  311. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#access-to-external-objects">Access to external objects</a></li>
  312. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#access-to-internal-objects">Access to internal objects</a></li>
  313. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#import-resolution-and-custom-importers">Import resolution and custom importers</a></li>
  314. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuring-queuehandler-and-queuelistener">Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener</a></li>
  315. </ul>
  316. </li>
  317. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-file-format">Configuration file format</a></li>
  318. </ul>
  319. </li>
  320. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code> — Logging handlers</a><ul>
  321. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#streamhandler">StreamHandler</a></li>
  322. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#filehandler">FileHandler</a></li>
  323. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#nullhandler">NullHandler</a></li>
  324. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#watchedfilehandler">WatchedFileHandler</a></li>
  325. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#baserotatinghandler">BaseRotatingHandler</a></li>
  326. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#rotatingfilehandler">RotatingFileHandler</a></li>
  327. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#timedrotatingfilehandler">TimedRotatingFileHandler</a></li>
  328. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#sockethandler">SocketHandler</a></li>
  329. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#datagramhandler">DatagramHandler</a></li>
  330. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#sysloghandler">SysLogHandler</a></li>
  331. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#nteventloghandler">NTEventLogHandler</a></li>
  332. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#smtphandler">SMTPHandler</a></li>
  333. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#memoryhandler">MemoryHandler</a></li>
  334. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#httphandler">HTTPHandler</a></li>
  335. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#queuehandler">QueueHandler</a></li>
  336. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#queuelistener">QueueListener</a></li>
  337. </ul>
  338. </li>
  339. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="getpass.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass</span></code> — Portable password input</a></li>
  340. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code> — Terminal handling for character-cell displays</a><ul>
  341. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
  342. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#window-objects">Window Objects</a></li>
  343. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
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  346. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#module-curses.textpad"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code> — Text input widget for curses programs</a><ul>
  347. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#textbox-objects">Textbox objects</a></li>
  348. </ul>
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  350. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.ascii.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></code> — Utilities for ASCII characters</a></li>
  351. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></code> — A panel stack extension for curses</a><ul>
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  353. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel.html#panel-objects">Panel Objects</a></li>
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  366. <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code> — A foreign function library for Python</a><ul>
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  368. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#loading-dynamic-link-libraries">Loading dynamic link libraries</a></li>
  369. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls">Accessing functions from loaded dlls</a></li>
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  372. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#calling-functions-continued">Calling functions, continued</a></li>
  373. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#calling-variadic-functions">Calling variadic functions</a></li>
  374. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types">Calling functions with your own custom data types</a></li>
  375. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes">Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)</a></li>
  376. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#return-types">Return types</a></li>
  377. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference">Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)</a></li>
  378. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#structures-and-unions">Structures and unions</a></li>
  379. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order">Structure/union alignment and byte order</a></li>
  380. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions">Bit fields in structures and unions</a></li>
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  382. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#pointers">Pointers</a></li>
  383. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#type-conversions">Type conversions</a></li>
  384. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#incomplete-types">Incomplete Types</a></li>
  385. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#callback-functions">Callback functions</a></li>
  386. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#accessing-values-exported-from-dlls">Accessing values exported from dlls</a></li>
  387. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#surprises">Surprises</a></li>
  388. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#variable-sized-data-types">Variable-sized data types</a></li>
  389. </ul>
  390. </li>
  391. <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#ctypes-reference">ctypes reference</a><ul>
  392. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#finding-shared-libraries">Finding shared libraries</a></li>
  393. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#loading-shared-libraries">Loading shared libraries</a></li>
  394. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#foreign-functions">Foreign functions</a></li>
  395. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#function-prototypes">Function prototypes</a></li>
  396. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#utility-functions">Utility functions</a></li>
  397. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#data-types">Data types</a></li>
  398. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#ctypes-fundamental-data-types-2">Fundamental data types</a></li>
  399. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#structured-data-types">Structured data types</a></li>
  400. <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#arrays-and-pointers">Arrays and pointers</a></li>
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